Aceh has such a unique ramadhan culture or tradition which is did only once in year called "hari megang"; a day before ramadhan. The day before ramadhan comes we can find a unique phenomenon in traditional market, especially the biggest traditional market in Banda Aceh. We will see a bunch of people fulfill the butcher shop or bucther stand since early morning, and of course every body seems buying amount of beef. This kind of phenomenon not only can see in the traditional market but also in "tanah lapang" (some place seems like 'alun-alun in Java). Special for this day some of field will be changed to such a butcher shop. Start from early morning about 05.00 a.m every butcher comes, butchering cow and lamb, and trade it there. Actually the butchering take place at 03.00 a.m. This phenomenon of course rising a question for the people who see it for first time.
Aceh people almost not serve amount of meet or beef when they eat. They tend to eat seafood or chicken sometimes since they have a mind set that meet is a luxurious and expensive food. They'd prefer to buy outside when they want to eat than cooking it them seleves, or sometime they can eat it when they are presenting at such a party. Moreover, some of them only eat meet when the ramadhan comes.
Since the ramadhan comes, as a religious person, Aceh peoples want to be focus on their religiousness ritual without bothering by thinking about daily food. Since meet is a kind of foodstuff which is full of energy, the day before ramadhan they buy some meet and cook it in slow cooking. Thus, it also could keep for long time. The cooking is saved in saparately small pack. When they want to eat they just take some pack as much as they need and heat it aminute. After preparing amount of meet, Aceh people almost not go to the market for 2 weeks to buy another foodstuff but they just go to a small shop to find some vegetables and fruits. They can stay at home be good at religious service a long ramadhan without feel hungry at all.
1. Theoretical approaches to "non-material" forms of capital: cultural, symbolic, social capital in socialogical theory.
Then term culturalcapital represents th collection f non-economic forces uch as family background, social clas, varying investmen in ommitments to education different resources, etc. whic influence acadmic success. Bordieu dstinguishes thee forms of cultural capital.
The embodied state isdirectly link to and incorporated within the individual and represents what they know and can do. Embodied capital can be increased by investing time into self improvement in the form of learning.
The objecteified state of cultural capital is represented by cultral goods, material, objects such as books, paintings, instruments or machines. They can be appropriated both materially with economic capital and symbolically via embodies caital.
Institutionalized state provides academic credentials and qualifcations which create a 'certificateof cultural competence which confers on its holder a conventional, constant, legally uaranteed value with respect to power.'
Bordieu states that the ability and talent of an individual is primarily determined by the time and cultural capital invested in them by their parents. Similarly, he argues that the scholastic yield from educational action depends on the cultural capital previously invested by the family.
"Bordieu defines social capital as. 'the aggregate of the actual or potential recources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition.'(248) An individual's social caital is detremined by the size or thei relationship network, the sum of its umuated recouces (both cultur and economic), a how successfully (qucky) the indiviual ca set them it inmotion. Bordieu recognizes that all types of cpital can be derved from economic capital through varying efforts of transformation."
Social capital-may be crucially important not only for achieving but also for maintaning existing social/economic status. Social capital works as a set of networks connections and reciprocal mutual obligations that, in many cases, are essential for individual's survival in highly network-centered society.
2. Social networks in South Korean society
Yeonjul, based on person's ascribed status (parental status) and various forms of cultural capital, especially such institutionalised forms of cultural capital as academic credentials. The strongest forms of yeonjul are regional (usually belonging to a group of the natives of one and the same town/province) and high school/university ties. Basically yeonjul works in the same way as social network: serve as the surest way to find a job, dodge a draft etc. "SNU Republic" and TK mafia are example of two the strongest yeonjul in Korea. SNU is the most prestigious university and the strongest alumni yeonjul group, and TK is Taegu-Kyeongsang Province and as a strong regional yeonjul group. From the viewpoint of South Korean progressives, various yeonjuls solidify on the informal level the social borders and barriers of the class society --due to the strength of leading privileged yeonjuls, prospects of social advancement for a person without right class background (economic capital) to enter a right yeonjul, are very poor. Yeonjuls are often analysed as a form of "class alienation".
Four facts about social networks in Korea.
First, social network functions as an important mode of social exchange. People with higher socio-economics status tend to focus more on instrumental advantage of large network size, thus minimizing transaction costs, and getting information quickly and cheaply.
Second, social network in Korea shows high homopily, or very homogenous association within the line of sex, age, and region.
Third, social network functions as a reference group so that it asserts an enormous influence on individual's value and attitude.
Fourth, those who have wider range of networks tend to have less authoritian attitude, but they are more cautious and have deep distrust on judicial justice.
Ritual can be defined as a set of actions which contain values and usually prescribed by a religion or by the traditions of a community. A ritual may be performed by an individual or a community in private or public places. Rituals have purposes, it can be personal purposes or public purposes and sometimes ritual is held just for the pleasure. Rituals also have various kind, rituals include not only the various worship rites but also include coronations, club meetings, etc. There are some rituals that load the occultists or magic, for example the ritual which performed with sacrifice and murder or suicide.
The most simply rituals are hand-shaking and saying hello. In Islam communities, the greeting is by saying ‘Assalamu’alaikum’ and there’s an obligation to answer it by saying ‘Wa alaikum salam.’ In Korea, we can say ‘Annyeonghaseyo,’ these are the simply form of ritual actions. Rituals in religion include worship, pray, cult. Rituals in customs and traditions include marriages, funerals, birthdays, parties, parades, ceremonies, etc. For example, in Indonesia there is a ceremony which held to celebrate the Indonesia’s freedom. In Korea there is a ritual that held to celebrate a baby’s first birthday called ‘Dol janci’. In Indonesia there are some special rituals which combine the religion and customs such as Grebeg Mulud which is held to celebrate the birth of Prophet of Muhammad, this ritual combines the Islam doctrine and Javanese custom.
Superstition is a belief or notion which not based on reason or knowledge. Superstition is different from ritual, ritual is an action, but superstition is only a belief or notion. Although superstition isn’t based on knowledge, the purpose of superstition is good, and sometimes superstition is really happened. For example, in Javanese communities there is superstition that sitting on broom will suffocate having many children and for the girls sitting in the door will suffocate difficulties of having husband. Those superstitions didn’t base on reason but have good purpose that sitting on a broom can break the broom. In Korea, there is a superstition that leaving a fan on in a closed room will suffocate the occupants.
Diplomatic relation between Indonesia and India experienced dynamic changes since Asian African Conference in 1955. Then the relationship between Indonesia and India became closer and warm. But about a decade later, when the India-Pakistan war, the relation was getting worse and deteriorating because Indonesia sent arms supplies to Pakistan and mobilized the mass to stage the anti-India demonstration in Jakarta. However, this situation was changed into warm relation again after Soeharto seized the power and both Indonesia and India restored their diplomatic relation. Indonesia and Indonesia then agreed to maintain the peace and security in Southeast Asia in order to set up a strategic regional balance. Both countries keep maintaining the cooperation in security and defense. However, they have not maintained good cooperation in economic relation.
For some decades Indonesia and India has made 23 MoUs since 1951 up to 2005. These MoUs point outs five kinds of cooperation, nine MoUs in security and defense cooperation, 8 MoUs in economic cooperation, 2 Mous in friendship cooperation, 2 MoUs in general diplomatic policy cooperation, and 2 MoUs in cultural cooperation. Indonesia was interested in buying weapons from India such as torpedoes, corvette warships, and submarines. Both countries also signed a MoU on war against international terrorism 2004 and they established a Joint Work Group (JWG) and had the first meeting in February 2005.
But the other cooperation between both countries is not as good as the cooperation in security and defense. They had not fully maintained cooperation in another field like culture. Though Indonesia and India signed 8 MoUs in economic cooperation, but in field it didn’t work well. Both countries have different economic system and India’s economic development is faster than in Indonesia. It can be regarded as a bit unfortunate since Indonesia got its independence two years earlier than India did. In 2008 India recorded US $ 50.3 billion in trade volume, while Indonesia recorded only US $ 25.53 billion in the same year. India’s economic development ran twice faster than Indonesia did.
India succeeded in applying its liberal economic system and strength the economic infrastructure in technology and human resources. Indonesia has good system in economic development but it didn’t work because Indonesia was so preoccupied with corruption, collusion, and nepotism that spread like fungi. The government of India also developed a good educational system that made more professionals in India. The domestic situation influence economic development, India has more amount of population than Indonesia does, but it is more difficult to develop economic in Indonesia because Indonesia has more tribes or ethnics than India, or more pluralism than India. Each tribe has different culture and different train of thought, so there are many pro and contra between the Indonesian government and its people.
Indonesia and India had not fully gained the benefit from their cooperation in economic and cultural cooperation. And both countries had not maintained the educational cooperation. There is no formal Indian culture study in Indonesia that made by Indonesian government or university, it is important to make some cultural exchange between Indonesia and India. Indian movie industry has exported its movies to Indonesia and many Indonesian people that have interest in Indian movies. But it only happened some years ago, Indian movies were popular in Indonesia before Korean Wave came in Indonesia.
Indonesia-Korea
The Indonesia-Korea relationship continues to develop since the establishment of diplomatic relation in 1973. Korea is now the 6th largest trading partner of Indonesia, and Indonesia is now the 10th largest trading partner of Korea. The relationship between the two nations has developed into a thriving strategic partnership. About 23.000 Indonesians are in Korea to contribute to the significant progress of the Korean economy, and about 31.000 Koreans and 1.200 firms are in Indonesia. The two countries commit to strengthen exchanges in fields such as energy and resources which lead to economic cooperation. Both Korea and Indonesia also will additionally focus on the development of a wider mutual understanding each other through increased cultural exchange.
Economic relations between Indonesia and Korea have been further strengthened with cooperation which covers many fields: economic development, information technology, foreign workers, energy, maritime and fisheries, forestry, tourism, and science and technology. On bilateral trade, like what was mentioned in previous paragraph, Indonesia and Korea and Korea are important trading partner each other. Total trade between two countries in 2008 amounted to $ 19.25 billion, bigger than in 2007 which amounted only $ 14.89 billion. In the field of IT cooperation, there is cooperation between Radio Republic Indonesia (RRI) and Korea Broadcasting System (KBS). RRI dispatched one of its broadcasters to KBSin Korea to host the Indonesian language broadcast program.
Both countries maintain cooperation not only in economic field but also in cultural exchanges cooperation. Korea has developed studies for Indonesian language and cultures for about more than three decades ago and Indonesia has developed Korean language and cultural studies for about a decades. Since the Korean Star Wave or Hallyu that became popular in Indonesia in 2002s, interests in Korean culture of Indonesian people increases each years. Many MoUs were signed between universities in Indonesia and universities in Korea that contributed in cultural studies between both countries. Korea also established center for Korean studies organization in Indonesia like Korea Foundation and KOICA. Both organizations have supported Indonesian students and scholars to study about Korea in Indonesia or in Korea.
Relation Indonesia-India started more than a decade earlier than the relation Indonesia-Korea. But now the cooperation between Indonesia and Korea is more significant than between Indonesia and India. Cooperation Indonesia-India emphasized cooperation in security and defense, but in another field both countries has not fully gained the benefit from the cooperation. Both countries also passed the relation from warm relation to bad relation and now turned on warm relation again. Cooperation between Indonesia and Korea additionally focus on the economic and cultural cooperation, and both countries have gained the benefit of the cooperation. And since the forming diplomatic relation between Indonesia and Korea, both countries are keeping their warm relation till now. And both Indonesia and Korea seems that they are confident that the bilateral relationship between Korea and Indonesia will continue to develop for the mutual benefit of two countries.
Korean people seem that they have open-minded and active attitudes towards religion. It’s true that foreign religions were accepted easily. But some religions were not, for example the persecution of Catholicism in the late Joseon Dynasty. It proved that Korean people don’t have open-minded towards religion.
The Buddhism and Confucianism were accepted easily and became the state religion at that time. Islam is the latest foreign religion that came in Korea, but the number of Islam belivers are very few. And now the Christianity has the biggest religion in Korea but they are still influenced by Buddhism and Confucianism in their daily life. So Korean people practice the syncretism in their life. And I think that now there are many Korean Christian only believe in Christian just because Christianity is western thing. So Korean people only have open-minded for western things. Islam is not western thing so Korean people have little interest in Islam but prefer to choose Christian because Christian is the major religion in western country. It seems like Korean people choose Christianity just for fashion because they still practice the Confucianism or Buddhism.
Christianity supported democracy in Korea. The life of Korean people was influenced by Buddhism and Confucianism in the past time. But after Christianity came in Korea it was changed partly and became more dependent on Christianity. Korean people thought that everything that came from west is more modern. It made the way easier to Christianity spreads in Korea.
Christianity led the modernization in Korea and Korea started to be more liberal and democratized by the modernization. Buddhism has similarity with authoritarian throne and Korean people thought that was old fashioned thing that have to be leaved. Christianity has the similarity with democracy and liberalism that influenced Korean people and government to follow the democratization and liberalism. Christian taught the Korean people not only about the Christianity but also the western culture such as concept of freedom and democracy. It was support the middle class and lower class of Korean people. The middle class and lower class of Korean people felt comfortable with democracy that brought by Christianity because they have same position in governmental position with the high class if they practice the democracy.
During the past two millenia, Korean people have a number of major religions and ideologies, Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism and Christianity, at the same time, Korea's indigenous ideology has also maintaining a measure of influence. In the twentieth century, a large number of new religions developed in Korea, many of which have taken root and are now coexisting along with the other more established religions.It is Christianity that became the major religion in Korea now. At the first time, Christianity was not accepted in Korea easily but now it became the major religion that has big influence in Korean governmental life.
Indonesian religions also had influenced the governmental life in old Indonesian kingdoms in the past. Those religions were Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam, and they became the major religion at that time. For examples, Hinduism was the major religion in Mataram Kingdom and the government was ruled by Hinduism concept. But now the major religion in Indonesia is Islam but it doesn’t have big influence in the governmental rule because Indonesia is the democratic nation. Though Islam become the major religion in Indonesia and has influence most of people, Islam doesn’t rule the governmental life because there are respect in another religions.
Korean religions and Indonesian religions both had influenced the government each of it from time to time. In Korea, the religion in governmental rule has big influence directly till now. In Indonesia, the religions had big influence in governmental rule directly in the past but now the religion in Indonesia doesn’t influence the government. Maybe it still has influence but not as big as in the past and indirectly.
·Ruwatan Rambut Gembel (Sticky and Twisted Hair Ritual)
This ritual is a tradition lived in Kejajar district, positioned about 17 kilometers northern of Wonosobo capital regency. In this region, many children have sticky and twisted hairs (rambut gembel), and according to local tale, these sticky and twisted hairs are given by someone called Ki Kolodete. Locals say that rambut gembel is a disaster, so a ritual for rambut gembel must be held. When rambut gimbal is cutted without ceremony the children will be ill-weakly. In traditional ceremonies the child can ask anything, and the parents must be accepted. Sometimes the requests are unique such as a box of eggs, a suck of chicken, etc. If ruwatan not upon a request, even though cutting has been done, the gembel will oddly grown again, according to some expert, rambut gembel might have been hereditary disease or phatological symptom, owing to the fact that their descendant, Ki Kolodete also had Rambut Gembel.
·Nyadran Suran of Gianti sub-Villagers
This ritual is an anniversary ceremony for Gianti sub-village, a part of Kadipaten village, Selomerto district. It is often then followed by a ritual called Merdi Dusun combined with Tenongan ceremony. After the activities, then an art performance is held on the night until day changing to next. This is an expression of gratitude to God.
·Nyadran Suran of Pagerejo Villagers
This ritual is almost the same as the one in Gianti sub-village. It is held every Syuro 1st. In this ritual, Pagarejo villagers do bathing ceremony in Surodilogo spring, to clean the bodies and souls of villagers. This is also an expression of gratitude to God.
2.Indonesian Culture
Indonesian culture is multicultural, Indonesian culture is not plural because plural refer to the Indonesian people. It is multicultural because there are many different cultures from different areas. Indonesia is a plural nation but the culture is multicultural, and there is an understanding and a respect of different culture. For example, Batak people that live in Java Island, which have Batak cultures, understand and respect to the Java cultures and vice versa. So they can live together in one social area as a group.
Mental programming leads to person having same behaviors in similar situations, so we can predict a person’s behavior or people’s behavior if we know their mental programming and the situation. Our mental programs are physically determined by states of our brain cells. We cannot directly observe mental programs but we can observe behavior, words, or deeds. Every person’s mental programming is partly unique and partly shared with others.
There are three levels of uniqueness in human mental programming that consists of universal, collective, and individual level. The most basic of mental programming is universal level, in this level, mental programming is shared by all mankind. The collective level of mental programming is shared with some people in groups or categories. Language, which is part of culture, is learned in this level. The top level is individual level which is the truly unique part, each person is different and unique, because people have different mental programs.
Mental programs can be learned, and better if they are learned when we are young, it will be easier than if we start it in mature age. There are two kind of operationalization of mental programs, they are provoked behavior and natural behavior, and each of that can be verbal (words) and nonverbal (deeds). So, there are four kind of behavior, provoked words, natural words, provoked deeds, and natural deeds.
Values can be defined as an attribute of individuals as well as collectivities. Each person has many values in their life, and other people can agree with one person’s values or disagree with it. One value can be good in some people’s point of view or can be bad in another. Values are very subjective and each person has different subjective sign so that their values are different and most people hold some conflicting values.
Values are distinguished into desired and desirable, what people think ought to be desired isn’t always same with what they actually desire. Values are different with behavior, values also cannot be equated with deeds, it’s simple because behaviors depend on the person and the situation. Based on nature of a value, values can be distinguished into the desired and the desirable value, and based on the dimension of value, there are intensity and direction, and based on dominant outcome, the desired most has outcome in both deeds and words but the desirable has outcome in words. Important, successful, attractive, and preferred belong to terms used in measuring instrument of the desired values, whereas good, right, agree, ought, and should belong to terms used in measuring instrument of the desirable values. Based on the corresponding behavior, the desired value has choice and differential effort allocation, and the desirable value has approval or disapproval. Person reffered to in measuring instrument of the desired are ‘me’ and/or ‘you,’ and person reffered to measuring instrument of desirable are people in general.
Culture is defined as the shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, and affective understanding that are learned through a process of socialization. These shared patterns identify the members of a culture group while also distinguishing those of another group. Values can be found in one person or individually, but culture only can be found in group of people or institutions. The institutions include the family, education system, politics, and legislation. The major group of population has the value system that became societal norms. The ecological factors and societal norms influenced the culture of each institution that raised the consequences of culture. The consequences are structure and functioning of institutions that consist of family patterns, role differentiation, social stratification, socialization emphases, education, religion, political structure, legislation, architecture, theory development. Each institution has different culture because the different norms and the different ecological conditions, those ecological factors are geographic, economic, demographic, genetic, historical, technological, and urbanization that led to different structure and functioning of institutions.
Ethnocentrism is the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own culture, that one's own race or ethnic group is the most important and that some or all aspects of its culture are superior to those of other groups. Ethnocentrism is already present in the instruments used in data collection. To avoid ethnocentrism in data collection, the instruments should be developed cross-culturally. In fact, ethnocentrism still present in the decision, and it is also found in divulging of research results. The ethnocentrism has been the main reasons for the lack of advance of the art.
Language is part of culture that became the systematic study and theory-building. We can learn foreign language because language is a learned characteristic, but we have to learn about that foreign culture too. If we learn an additional language which is foreign language and we don’t know about its culture, we could find difficulties in translation. Because translation not only just translate the words or sentences but also translate the sense and also the style of the language, by knowing the culture will make the translation is natural and easily understood. In some cross-cultural studies, the translation is needed for research instruments. In that chase, sometimes error translations are happened, but it can be randomized if we able to increase the number of languages used.(Ulvia-2009)
The Alto do Cruzeiro is one of three shantytowns surrounding the large market town of Bom Jesus in the sugar plantation zone of Pernambuco in Northeast Brazil, one of the many zones of neglect that have emerged in the shadow of tarnished economic miracle of Brazil. For the women and children of the Alto do Cruzeiro the only miracle is that some of them have managed to stay alive at all.
The Northeast is a region of the vast proportions (approximately twice the size of Texas) and of equally vast social and development problems. The nine states that make up the region are the poorest in the country and are representative of the Third World within a dynamic and rapidly industrializing nation.
Life expctan in the Northet is ony forty years, largely because of apallingly hugh rate of infant and child mortality. Approximately one million children Brazil under the age of five die each year. The children of the Northeast, especially those born in shantytowns on the periphery of urban life, are at a very high risk of death. In these areas, children are born without the traditional protection of breast feeding, subsistence gardens, stable marriages, and multiple adult caretakers that exist in the interior. In the hillside shantytowns that spring up around cities or, in this case, interior market towns, marriage are brittle, single parenting is norm, and women are frequently forced into the shadow economy of domestic work in the hornes of the rich or into unprotected and oftentimes "scab" wage labor on the surrounding sugar plantations, where they clear land for planting and weed for pittance, sometimes less than a dollar a day The women of the Alto may not bring their babies with them into the homes of wealthy, where the often-sic infants are considered sources of contaminations, and they cannot carry the little one to the riverbanks where they wash clothes because the river isheavily infested iwth schistosomes and other deadly parasites. Nor can theuy carry their young cildren to the plantation, which are often several miles away. At wages of a dollar a day, the women of The Alto cannot hire babysitters. Older children who are not in school will sometimes serve as somewhat indifferen caretakers But any child not in school is also expected to find wage work. In most cases babies are simply left at home alone, the door securely fastened . And so many also die alone and unattended.
More than 350 babies died in The Alto during 1965 alone--this form a shantytowns population of little more than 5,000. But that was not something surprised. There were reasons enough for the deaths in the miserable conditions of shantytown life. Something that was puzzled was the seeming indefference of Alto women to the death of their infants, and their willingness to attribute to their own tiny offspring an aversion to life that made their death seems wholly natural, indeed all but anticipated.
Aceh has such a unique ramadhan culture or tradition which is did only once in year called "hari megang"; a day before ramadhan. The day before ramadhan comes we can find a unique phenomenon in traditional market, especially the biggest traditional market in Banda Aceh. We will see a bunch of people fulfill the butcher shop or bucther stand since early morning, and of course every body seems buying amount of beef. This kind of phenomenon not only can see in the traditional market but also in "tanah lapang" (some place seems like 'alun-alun in Java). Special for this day some of field will be changed to such a butcher shop. Start from early morning about 05.00 a.m every butcher comes, butchering cow and lamb, and trade it there. Actually the butchering take place at 03.00 a.m. This phenomenon of course rising a question for the people who see it for first time.
